nuclei located at different levels within a single row of aligned cells

When considering the amount of genetic information contained at different levels, from smallest to largest, the ranking would typically be DNA nucleotide, gene, chromosome, genome and species.

DNA Nucleotide: The smallest unit of genetic information is the DNA nucleotide. Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA, consisting of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine). Each nucleotide represents a single unit of genetic information.

Gene: A gene is a specific segment of DNA that contains the instructions for synthesizing a particular protein or functional RNA molecule. Genes are composed of a series of nucleotides arranged in a specific sequence. They provide the blueprint for the production of proteins, which are essential for various biological processes.

Chromosome: Chromosomes are thread-like structures composed of DNA and proteins found within the nucleus of a cell. They contain multiple genes and carry the genetic information necessary for the inheritance of traits. In humans, each cell typically has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 in total), with one set inherited from each parent.

Genome: A genome refers to the complete set of genetic material in an organism. It includes all the DNA sequences present in the chromosomes of an individual. The genome encompasses all the genes, non-coding regions, regulatory elements, and other DNA sequences that contribute to an organism's genetic information.

Species: At the highest level, genetic information can be considered within the context of a species. A species represents a group of organisms that share similar genetic information, allowing them to reproduce and produce viable offspring. The genetic information within a species defines its characteristics, traits, and potential for adaptation and evolution.

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The term that describes any blood disorder in which there is an abnormally small number of platelets is thrombocytopenia.

This condition can occur due to various factors such as a decrease in platelet production, an increase in platelet destruction, or an abnormal distribution of platelets in the body. Thrombocytopenia can result in bleeding or bruising, and in severe cases, it can cause spontaneous bleeding in the body. Treatment for thrombocytopenia varies depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. It may involve medications, blood transfusions, or surgery. It is important to seek medical attention if any symptoms of thrombocytopenia are present.

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In order for transcription to initiate at RNA pol II promoters, the C-terminal domain of the largest subunit of RNA pol II must be phosphorylated. This domain, also known as the CTD.

The CTD consists of multiple heptad repeats with the sequence YSPTSPS, and the phosphorylation of specific serine residues within these repeats is critical for transcription initiation.

The phosphorylation of the CTD serves as a signal for the recruitment of other transcription factors and enzymes that are required for transcription initiation.

For example, the phosphorylated CTD helps to recruit TFIIB, a transcription factor that is necessary for the formation of the preinitiation complex.

The CTD also plays a role in the recruitment of pTEFb kinase, which is involved in the release of RNA polymerase II from the promoter and the transition into the elongation phase of transcription.

Additionally, the CTD of TBP (TATA-binding protein) can also be phosphorylated, which is important for the recruitment of other transcription factors and the formation of the preinitiation complex.

However, it is the phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain of the largest subunit of RNA pol II that is most critical for transcription initiation at RNA pol II promoters.

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In the ideal barium titanate (BaTiO3) structure, the coordination number of the Ti4+ ion refers to the number of oxygen ions (O2-) that are in direct contact with the Ti4+ ion.

Barium titanate adopts a perovskite structure, where the Ti4+ ion is located at the center of an octahedral arrangement of oxygen ions. This means that each Ti4+ ion is surrounded by six oxygen ions.

Therefore, the coordination number of the Ti4+ ion in barium titanate is 6, indicating that it is coordinated to six O2- ions.

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A  gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for the synthesis of a specific functional product, such as a protein or a functional RNA molecule. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and play a central role in determining the traits and characteristics of living organisms.

Phenotype is the physical appearance of an individual. The expression of a genotype refers to the physical manifestation of the genetic information carried by an individual. The genotype, on the other hand, is the genetic makeup of an individual, which includes both dominant and recessive alleles. Heterozygous refers to the presence of two different alleles for a particular gene, while the recessive gene is only expressed when it is present in a homozygous state.

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The DNA molecule is composed of four different chemical units called nucleotides.

Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous base can be adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). The sugar molecule in DNA is called deoxyribose, which gives the molecule its name, deoxyribonucleic acid.

In conclusion, the sides of the DNA ladder are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous bases of the nucleotides form the rungs of the ladder, while the sugar and phosphate groups form the sides or backbones.

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Right atrium of the heart receives blood from the superior and the inferior venae cavae.

D is the correct answer.

Blood returning to the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium, where it is sent to the right ventricle, which pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

The superior and inferior vena cava are the two sections that make up the vena cava. Blood from the head, neck, arms, and chest is transported through the superior vena cava. Blood is transported from the legs, foot, and organs in the pelvis and abdomen through the inferior vena cava. The vena cava is the body's largest vein.

The inferior vena cava returns blood to the heart from the lower part of the body, including the abdomen, pelvis, legs, and feet, whereas the superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper part of the body, including the head, neck, arms, and chest.

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The complete question is:

which chamber of the heart receives blood from the superior and the inferior venae cavae?

A. left atrium

B. left ventricle

C. right ventricle

D. right atrium

The technique preferred for motility determination when working with pathogenic bacteria is the microscopic observation of bacterial motility using techniques such as wet mounts, hanging drop preparations, or dark-field microscopy.

Motility determination is an important characteristic to assess in pathogenic bacteria as it can contribute to their virulence and ability to spread within a host. Several techniques are commonly used to determine bacterial motility, with microscopic observation being the preferred method. Microscopic techniques allow for the direct visualization of bacterial movement and provide valuable information about the motility patterns and mechanisms employed by pathogenic bacteria.

Wet mounts involve placing a small amount of bacterial culture on a microscope slide and covering it with a coverslip. This allows for the observation of bacterial movement under a light microscope. Hanging drop preparations involve suspending a drop of bacterial culture from a coverslip using a depression slide, creating an environment where bacteria can move freely without drying out. Dark-field microscopy is another useful technique that enhances contrast and enables the visualization of bacteria against a dark background, making their motility easier to observe.

These microscopic techniques allow researchers to assess the presence or absence of motility, the direction and speed of movement, and the presence of specific motility structures such as flagella. By understanding the motility characteristics of pathogenic bacteria, researchers can gain insights into their behavior, colonization ability, and potential mechanisms of pathogenesis, which can aid in the development of targeted interventions and treatments.

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An advantage of producing transgenic plants is:

increasing herbicide resistance

Producing transgenic plants, also known as genetically modified (GM) plants, offers the advantage of increasing herbicide resistance. Through genetic engineering techniques, specific genes can be introduced into plants to confer resistance to certain herbicides. This allows farmers to selectively apply herbicides to control weeds without harming the transgenic crop.

By introducing genes that encode proteins capable of detoxifying or tolerating herbicides, transgenic plants can withstand the application of herbicides that would otherwise damage or kill non-transgenic plants. This trait provides a significant advantage in agricultural practices, as it helps to effectively manage weed populations while preserving the growth and yield of the transgenic crop.

The increased herbicide resistance in transgenic plants enables more efficient weed control, reduces the need for manual labor-intensive weeding, and allows for the use of specific herbicides that target the problem weeds without affecting the crop plants.

It is worth noting that there are other potential advantages associated with producing transgenic plants, such as improved crop yield, enhanced nutritional content, resistance to pests and diseases, and increased tolerance to environmental stresses. However, out of the options provided, increasing herbicide resistance stands as a notable advantage of producing transgenic plants.

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An enzyme adds a ubiquitin tag to proteins that are recognized by proteasomes for destruction.

A sequence of enzymatic events involving three primary enzymes—ubiquitin-activating enzyme (E1), ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2), and ubiquitin ligase enzyme (E3)—leads to the covalent attachment of the tiny protein ubiquitin to target proteins.

Ubiquitination, sometimes called ubiquitylation, is a crucial step in the control and destruction of proteins in living cells. It involves attaching ubiquitin tags to proteins. The transfer of ubiquitin from the E2 enzyme to the target protein is facilitated by the E3 ligase, which recognizes certain target proteins. As a consequence, many ubiquitin molecules are bonded together to create a polyubiquitin chain.

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In the DNA backbone, deoxyribose residues are connected to each other through phosphodiester bonds. The correct answer is (C).

Between the 3' carbon of one deoxyribose sugar and the 5' carbon of the following deoxyribose sugar, these bonds are formed. The phosphate group (-PO4) forms the backbone of the DNA molecule by joining the sugar molecules together in a chain-like configuration through phosphodiester linkages. The DNA molecule is stabilized by this strong covalent link.

By joining individual nucleotides together into a single, linear strand, phosphodiester bonds are essential for preserving the DNA molecule's stability and integrity. The structural stability and protection of the DNA sequence's phosphate backbone are both essential. The glycosidic connections stated in option B are responsible for attaching the deoxyribose residues, but they are not responsible for binding the nitrogenous bases to the deoxyribose sugar inside each nucleotide.

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If standard nutrient agar had been used instead of MacConkey agar for culturing bacteria, there would be some notable differences in the growth and appearance of bacterial colonies.

Growth of both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria: Nutrient agar supports the growth of a wide range of bacteria, including both gram-negative and gram-positive species. Unlike MacConkey agar, which selectively inhibits the growth of gram-positive bacteria, nutrient agar allows the growth of both types. Therefore, on nutrient agar, you would expect to see colonies of both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria.

Absence of lactose fermentation differentiation: Nutrient agar does not contain lactose or any indicators for lactose fermentation. Consequently, the ability to differentiate between lactose-fermenting (pink/red colonies) and non-lactose fermenting (colorless colonies) bacteria, as seen on MacConkey agar, would be lost. All colonies on nutrient agar would appear similar in color, which could range from white to creamy or pigmented depending on the specific bacteria.

Lack of bile salts and crystal violet: MacConkey agar contains bile salts and crystal violet, which inhibit the growth of gram-positive bacteria. In the absence of these selective agents, nutrient agar would support the growth of a broader spectrum of bacteria, including gram-positive species.

No identification of coliform bacteria: MacConkey agar is selective for coliform bacteria, which are gram-negative, lactose-fermenting organisms commonly found in the intestinal tract. Nutrient agar does not provide the same selective advantage, so the identification and differentiation of coliform bacteria would not be possible on nutrient agar alone.

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Small, hollow membrane vesicles used to deliver therapeutic genes for gene therapy are called liposomes.

In order to transmit genetic material with the intention of treating a disease or condition in the cell, gene therapy uses gene delivery. Non-immunogenic vectors with cell selectivity are used in therapeutic contexts to deliver sufficient transgene expression to produce the desired effect.

The simplest method of introducing a gene is by injecting bare DNA into the target cells. Non-viral vectors can be used as injections of bare DNA (often plasmids), liposomes, or particle-mediated gene transfer.

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The complete question is:

Small, hollow membrane vesicles used to deliver therapeutic genes for gene therapy are called _____.

The oxygen level in an ecosystem maintained  by B. Oxygen is released by autotrophs that carry out photosynthesis.

In an ecosystem, oxygen levels are primarily maintained through the process of photosynthesis carried out by autotrophs, such as plants, algae, and some bacteria. During photosynthesis, these organisms use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and glucose. The oxygen released as a byproduct of photosynthesis is then available for other organisms to use in cellular respiration.

While decomposers do break down organic matter, releasing carbon dioxide in the process, they do not contribute significantly to the maintenance of oxygen levels.

Heterotrophs, which include animals and other organisms that rely on consuming organic matter for energy, actually consume oxygen during cellular respiration rather than releasing it.

Burning biomass, as in option D, can release oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide, but it is not a natural process within the ecosystem and can disrupt the balance of oxygen levels.

Therefore, autotrophs, through photosynthesis, are responsible for replenishing the oxygen levels in the ecosystem, creating a balance between oxygen production and consumption by other organisms. This process ensures that there is a sufficient oxygen supply for the survival and functioning of all organisms within the ecosystem.

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Answer:

The correct option is A. Heart →aorta →arteries → arterioles capillaries→ tissues → venules → veins → superior and inferior vena cava → heart

Bile emulsification is a critical step in the digestion of lipids, and it improves lipase activity by breaking down lipids into smaller droplets, increasing the surface area for enzyme activity.

Bile emulsification is a crucial process that takes place in the small intestine, and it is responsible for the breakdown of fats in the diet. Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder until it is needed. When food enters the small intestine, the gallbladder releases bile, which then acts as an emulsifying agent. Bile emulsifies lipids by breaking them down into smaller droplets, which increases the surface area of the lipids, making it easier for enzymes like lipase to digest them.

Lipase is an enzyme that breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Without bile emulsification, lipase would have difficulty accessing the lipids in the diet. Bile emulsification improves lipase activity by providing a larger surface area for the enzyme to work on, which leads to more efficient digestion of fats. Once the lipids are broken down, they can be absorbed by the small intestine and transported to the liver for further processing. In conclusion, bile emulsification is a critical step in the digestion of lipids, and it improves lipase activity by breaking down lipids into smaller droplets, increasing the surface area for enzyme activity.

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Answer:

The most common thing that happens to excess heat in the atmosphere is that it is absorbed by the oceans. The oceans have a huge capacity to store heat, and they have been absorbing more and more heat over the past few decades. This is due to the fact that the atmosphere is warming, and the oceans are not able to release the heat back into space as easily. As a result, the oceans are becoming warmer, and this is having a number of negative impacts on the planet, including sea level rise, ocean acidification, and changes in marine life.

Another thing that can happen to excess heat in the atmosphere is that it can be redistributed around the globe. This is because the atmosphere is constantly moving, and heat can be transferred from one place to another. This can lead to changes in weather patterns, such as more extreme weather events.

In order to make fluorine-18 from nitrogen-14, a positron can be used to bombard the nitrogen-14 nucleus. When a positron and a nitrogen-14 nucleus collide, they can undergo a process called positron emission.

Where the positron is absorbed by the nitrogen-14 nucleus and a proton is released. This changes the nitrogen-14 nucleus into an oxygen-18 nucleus. The oxygen-18 nucleus is then in an excited state and can release a gamma ray to transition to a lower energy state. This gamma ray can be detected and used to identify the presence of fluorine-18. A neutron cannot be used to bombard nitrogen-14 to make fluorine-18 because it would result in the formation of nitrogen-15, not fluorine-18. Similarly, a proton, alpha particle, or beta particle would also not be able to produce fluorine-18 from nitrogen-14. Therefore, the only particle that can be used to bombard nitrogen-14 to produce fluorine-18 is a positron.

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The Blue Shield concept originated in the lumber and mining camps, aiming to protect cultural heritage during times of conflict or disaster by designating specific symbols or markings.

The Blue Shield concept emerged from the need to safeguard cultural heritage in times of war and disaster. It traces its roots back to the lumber and mining camps where workers used blue paint to mark trees or structures as valuable resources to be preserved. This practice eventually evolved into a symbol of protection for cultural heritage.

The Blue Shield concept gained international recognition following the establishment of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict Northern United States. This convention aimed to protect cultural heritage sites, artifacts, and institutions during times of armed conflict. The Blue Shield symbol, which consists of a blue shield emblem, was adopted as the internationally recognized sign for the protection of cultural heritage.

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The part of the neuron that can propagate an action potential is the axon. The axon is a long, slender extension of the neuron that carries the action potential away from the cell body towards the axon terminals.

It is responsible for transmitting signals over long distances throughout the body. The axon is covered by a lipid-rich insulating layer called the myelin sheath, which helps to speed up the conduction of the action potential. The myelin sheath is created by specialized cells called oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system.

Between the myelin sheath are nodes of Ranvier, which allow for saltatory conduction, a type of rapid and energy-efficient conduction of the action potential. The axon terminals are the ends of the axon that form synapses with other neurons or muscle cells. In summary, the axon is the part of the neuron that can propagate an action potential, and it does so by transmitting signals over long distances throughout the body.

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one side effect of regaining weight during treatment of anorexia is an accumulation of body fat in the abdomen.

One major side effect of gaining weight during the treatment of anorexia nervosa (AN) is an accumulation of body fat in the abdomen. This single factor can make some AN patients resist regaining more weight or may even trigger a relapse.

any organism in the process of weight regaining may also experience physical side effects also such as ----bloating, constipation, headaches, and other gastrointestinal issues till their body becomes reacquainted to proper nourishment by taking proper amount of nutrients.

some complications of anorexia nervosa are as followed below----

Irregular heartbeats.

Low blood sugar.

Loss of bone mass.

Kidney and liver damage.

Osteoporosis.

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The small intestine is designed with a large surface area, villi, and microvilli to maximize absorption of digested food efficiently.

The small intestine is a long, coiled tube that increases its surface area to effectively absorb nutrients from digested food. Its inner lining has millions of tiny, finger-like projections called villi, which in turn have microscopic hair-like structures called microvilli.

These structures significantly expand the surface area, allowing for greater absorption.

Additionally, the small intestine is divided into three sections: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, each specialized for different aspects of absorption. The presence of enzymes and various transport proteins also aid in breaking down and transporting nutrients into the bloodstream.

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Specifically, molecules of chlorophyll are located in membranes of sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids are stacked on top of each other, forming structures called grana, which are located in the chloroplasts of plant cells.

The chlorophyll molecules are arranged in a specific manner within the thylakoid membrane to optimize their absorption of light energy during photosynthesis. As light is absorbed, it excites the electrons in the chlorophyll molecules, which triggers a series of reactions that ultimately convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

These energy-rich molecules are then used to power the production of glucose from carbon dioxide and water. The thylakoid membranes also contain other pigments and proteins that play important roles in photosynthesis, including accessory pigments that absorb light energy at different wavelengths and electron transport chains that transfer electrons from one molecule to another.

Overall, the structure and composition of thylakoid membranes are essential for efficient photosynthesis and the survival of plants.

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The muscle involved in abduction of the arm at the shoulder joint is the deltoid.                                                                              

This muscle is located on the shoulder and is responsible for lifting the arm away from the body. When this muscle contracts, it pulls the arm up and out to the side. It is important for movement and function in many organisms, including humans. The other muscles listed, such as the biceps brachii and triceps brachii, are involved in elbow flexion and extension, while the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major are involved in arm adduction.
Other muscles listed, such as the biceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major, and triceps brachii, serve different functions in the movement and stabilization of the arm but are not primarily responsible for shoulder abduction.

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The first 15 nucleotides of the resulting mRNA are transcribed from the DNA template. The 5' end of the mRNA corresponds to the beginning of the transcribed sequence, while the 3' end represents the end.

During transcription, the DNA template strand is used to synthesize mRNA. The process starts with the binding of RNA polymerase to the DNA template at the promoter region. RNA polymerase then moves along the DNA strand, unwinding the double helix and synthesizing an mRNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template.

The resulting mRNA sequence is determined by the base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs with uracil (U) in RNA, cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G), and thymine (T) pairs with adenine (A). The first nucleotide of the mRNA corresponds to the 5' end, and subsequent nucleotides are added in the 5' to 3' direction.

To determine the first 15 nucleotides of the resulting mRNA, we need to know the specific DNA template sequence. Once the DNA template sequence is known, the corresponding mRNA sequence can be determined by replacing thymine (T) with uracil (U) and aligning the bases in the 5' to 3' direction.

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The statement "According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, allele frequencies in randomly mating populations without selection" will remain constant from generation to generation is true, assuming that the population is in equilibrium and no other factors like mutation or migration are affecting the allele frequencies.

Large population size: The principle assumes that the population is infinitely large or at least very large. A large population size helps to minimize the effects of random sampling and genetic drift, which can cause fluctuations in allele frequencies.

Random mating: The individuals in the population must mate randomly with respect to the gene in question. This means that there should be no preferential mating based on genotype, and all possible mating combinations are equally likely.

No mutation: The principle assumes that there is no new mutation occurring in the gene pool. Mutation introduces new alleles into a population and can alter allele frequencies.

No migration: The principle assumes that there is no migration into or out of the population. Migration can introduce new alleles or remove existing ones, thereby influencing allele frequencies.

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Answer: Spores

Explanation:

Bacteria can produce spores that are highly resistant forms of the organism that develop in response to adverse environmental conditions.

The statement that is not correct regarding DNA is: "It was first used in the 1990s for criminal identification purposes."

In fact, DNA was first used for criminal identification in 1986 when Sir Alec Jeffreys, a British geneticist, developed DNA fingerprinting. This technique allowed for the identification and comparison of DNA samples, which led to its use in solving criminal cases.

New technologies have indeed made it easier to collect DNA, as advancements in equipment and methods have streamlined the process. DNA has become a widely used and powerful tool in various fields, including criminal investigations, paternity testing, and genealogy research.

Physical characteristics can be determined from DNA to some extent. While not all physical traits are solely determined by genetics, many, such as eye color, hair color, and certain genetic disorders, can be linked to specific genes. As our understanding of genetics continues to grow, so does our ability to identify and predict physical characteristics from an individual's DNA.

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Option B is correct. Helper T cells become activated by an antigen that was engulfed and digested by a phagocyte.

A phagocyte uses major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules to display antigen fragments on its surface after engulfing and digesting an antigen. These MHC molecules serve as a display platform for the helper T cells to view the antigen fragments.

T cell receptors (TCRs), specialized receptors found on the surface of helper T cells, are capable of recognizing the antigen-MHC complex. A helper T cell is activated when it comes into contact with an antigen-MHC complex that matches its TCR.

Helper T cells that have been activated discharge substances known as cytokines that prompt B cells and cytotoxic T cells to mount a coordinated immune response against the particular antigen.

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