The characteristic of facilitated diffusion is movement to a area of lower concentration (1) which assisted by proteins (2)), for example glucose transport into cell (5). While active transport is the movement which require energy (3), for example, sodium ion transport out of cells (4). Both of them are the movement across a membrane (6).
The cell membrane regulates the movement of particle in and out of cells. In terms of the concentration gradient and energy, there are some types of movement. Passive movement is a type of movement from high concentration to lower concentration so that doesn’t require energy in form of ATP. For example, osmosis and diffusion. Specially for facilitated diffusion, the movement is assisted by proteins. However the solute is moving down the concentration gradient. A transport of glucose into cells is through a facillitated diffusion.
Conversely, an active transport needs energy from respiration because the movement against the concentration gradient. For example, the sodium ion transport out of the cells.
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The tundra receives about as much rainfall as the
O taiga.
Odeciduous forest.
O coniferous forest.
O desert.
Answer:
Option 4) desertThe tundra only receives between six to ten inches of precipitation a year, which is less than most of the deserts on Earth. The tundra has also been referred to as a 'cold desert' due the limited precipitation.over time, tumors tend to grow faster and become more invasive of other tissues, a phenomenon known as tumor
Over time, tumors tend to grow faster and become more invasive of other tissues, a phenomenon known as tumor Malignant tumor
What type of tumour shows rapid and invasive growth ?Malignant tumours can metastasize, or grow and spread to different parts of the body. Malignant tumours don't all grow quickly though, some can develop more slowly over time. The cancer cells that spread to other parts of the body are identical to the ones that started it, but they have the ability to attack other organs.
A benign tumour is made up of cells that do not spread to unrelated body tissues or organs, despite the possibility that it will continue to enlarge abnormally. A malignant tumour is made up of cells that spread or invade other body parts after penetrating the basement membrane.
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Draw a punnets square for the following genotypes: mom-Cc Dad-Cc. List the
Phenotypes and genotypes.
The total number of boxes in your Punnett Square should be counted. You are then provided with the estimated total number of offspring. Subtract the genotypes and phenotype's prevalence in the population) from (the total number of offspring). To get your %, multiply the value from step 4 by 100.
What are A and B's phenotypes?You will have the type A blood phenotype if your genotype is AA or AO; the type B blood phenotype if your genotype is BB or BO; and the type AB blood phenotype if your genotype is AB.
BB and BB belong to what genotype?Homozygous genotypes and genotypes are those that have two identical alleles, i.e., "BB" and "bb."
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Which statement describes an event after which primary succession might successfully occur?
A wildfire destroys several thousand square kilometers of grassland.
O A glacier retreats, leaving behind a large area of rock.
O Warming temperatures in the spring thaw soil upon which seeds and fungal spores can grow.
O The ocean water falls back as the tide goes out, exposing a large stretch of sandy ocean front.
The primary succession might successfully occur in the glacier retreats, leaving behind a large area of rock. Thus, the correct option is B.
What is Primary succession?Primary succession is a type of ecological succession. Ecological succession is the evolution of a biological community's ecological structure in which the plants and animals first colonize on a barren, lifeless habitat such as a rock.
Primary succession happens in places where a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time and no living organism has ever found in that area. This can happen when the lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil on the land. During primary succession, organisms must start from the beginning as conditions are not favorable.
Therefore, the correct option is B.
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HELP IM ON LIMITED TIME
The DNA sequence of the African great apes is compared to that of
South American monkeys, and an average difference of about 7.0% is
observed. This is much smaller than the difference between either
primate and other mammals. What type of evidence for evolution is
this an example of?
Select one:
Embryological
Molecular
Anatomical
DNA
Answer:
This is an example of molecular evidence for evolution.
Explanation:
This is an example of molecular evidence for evolution. Molecular evidence for evolution refers to the study of the genetic makeup of different species to understand their evolutionary relationships. In this case, the scientist is comparing the DNA sequences of two different groups of primates and observing that the average difference is relatively small. This suggests that these species are closely related and likely evolved from a common ancestor, providing evidence for the theory of evolution.
AP Biology PLEASE HELP ME !!!!! Discuss how DNA comparisons support the theory of evolution.
Describe how technological advances have contributed to evolutionary theory.
Describe the process shown in the image here.
Explain which two species are most closely related and how the data can be used to draw your conclusion.
The technologies have already significantly altered life patterns, resulting in a significantly faster standard evolution.
What is evolution theory based on DNA?The DNA of an organism influences its appearance, behavior, and physiology. As a result, changes in an organism's DNA can affect all aspects of its life. Mutations are necessary for evolution; they are the building blocks of genetic variation. Without mutation, evolution will not occur.Darwin proposed that species evolve over time, that new species emerge from pre-existing species, and that all species share a common ancestor. According to this model, each species has its own set of heritable (genetic) differences from the common ancestor that have accumulated gradually over very long time periods.DNA evidence supports Darwin's central hypothesis: that heritable variation arises continuously and gradually accumulates, causing lineages to diverge from one another (though not necessarily at the same rate).To learn more about evolution theory refer to :
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natural phonology tendency to look at individual substitutions or deletions rather than patterns of errors
Yes, this is a tendency of natural phonology to look at individual substitutions or deletions rather than patterns of errors.
Natural phonology tends to focus on individual substitutions or deletions rather than the overall pattern of errors. This approach is useful in understanding how different speech sounds are processed and produced, and how they are affected by a variety of factors.
Additionally, it can help to identify which sounds are more difficult for a speaker to produce, allowing for targeted practice and intervention.
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Ptolemy and Copernicus were early astronomers. Ptolemy believed that Earth was the center of the solar system and Copernicus believed that the Sun was the center of the solar system. Which model would the astronomers most likely use to support their beliefs?
Ptolemy would use the geocentric model and Copernicus would use the heliocentric model.
Ptolemy would use the heliocentric model and Copernicus would use the geocentric model.
Ptolemy and Copernicus would both use the heliocentric model
Ptolemy and Copernicus would both use the geocentric model.
The model which the astronomers would most likely use to support their beliefs is that Ptolemy would use the geocentric model and Copernicus would use the heliocentric model which is therefore denoted as option A.
Who is an Astronomer?This is referred to as a scientist who studies the stars, planets, and other natural objects in space.
The geocentric model of the universe was first used by scientists as they though that the earth was the center of the solar system which was coined by Ptolemy.
However with time, studies by Copernicus were able to correct that notion as it was discovered that the sun is the center of the solar system. This therefore means that Ptolemy would use the geocentric model and Copernicus would use the heliocentric model.
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Some bacteria cause diseases in humans and other organisms, but
A. antibiotics can always be used to treat bacterial infections.
B. we don't know of any archaea that are harmful.
C. diseases caused by bacteria aren't serious.
D. viruses are unable to infect humans.
Some bacteria cause diseases in humans and other organisms, but antibiotics can always be used to treat bacterial infections. That is option A.
What is bacteria?Bacteria is defined as the microorganism that is capable of causing infection in other living organisms and they cannot be seen with the nãked eyes.
Some of the examples of bacteria microorganisms include the following:
Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria monocytogenes, Pesudomonas maltophilia, Listeria monocytogenes, Pesudomonas maltophilia, Thiobacillus novellus, Listeria monocytogenes, Pesudomonas maltophilia, Thiobacillus novellus, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Pesudomonas maltophilia, Thiobacillus novellus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyrogenes,When an individual is affected by bacteria the infection is called bacterial infection and can only be treated with antibiotics.
The action of antibiotics can either be bactericidal or bacteriostatic. The bactericidal antibiotics are capable of killing the bacteria while the bacteriostatic antibiotics are capable of stopping the action of the bacteria in human host.
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5. Sharon wants to conduct an experiment to determine if increasing the concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide around a plant will affect the plant's rate of photosynthesis. She must
complete the following steps: 1.Make a graphic display with which to results to others. 2.Write down
data as she conducts repeated trials of the experiment. 3.Interpret her results. 4.Make a hypothesis.
In which order should Sharon complete these steps?
a. 4-2-3-1
b. 3-1-2-4
c. 4-3-2-1
d. 2-4-3-1
Sharon wants to conduct an experiment to determine if increasing the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide around a plant will affect the plant's rate of photosynthesis. The correct option is C 4-3-2-1 .
Plants and other living things employ a process called photosynthesis to transform light energy into chemical energy that can then be released through cellular respiration to power the organism's activities. The word "photosynthesis" comes from the Greek words "light" and "putting together," and refers to the process of creating molecules of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These molecules, such as sugars and starches, are then stored with some of this chemical energy. [1] [2] [3] Photoautotrophs are creatures that perform photosynthesis, including most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The majority of the energy required for life on Earth is produced and maintained by photosynthesis, which is also substantially responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the atmosphere.
Even though various species perform photosynthesis in different ways, the process always starts when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centers that contain the colored pigments/chromophores green chlorophyll (and other colors). Unlike bacteria, which have these proteins incorporated in the plasma membrane, plants store these proteins in organelles called chloroplasts, which are most prevalent in leaf cells.
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Which of the following homeostatic functions involve both skeletal and smooth muscle in the reproductive system?
ejection of semen
regulation of menstrual blood flow from the uterus
movement of oocyte along the uterine tube
orgasm during intercourse
ejection of semen
The ejection of semen is a homeostatic function in the reproductive system that includes both skeletal and smooth muscle. Thus, the correct answer to this question is A.
The skeletal muscle is engaged during an erection, while the smooth muscle is engaged during semen ejection.
What are the differences between skeletal muscle and smooth muscle?Strait muscles linked to bones are referred to as "skeletal muscles." The neurological and endocrine systems control these voluntary, multinucleated, cylindrical muscles. Uninucleated smooth muscles have tapering ends. These non-striated muscles are controlled by the neurological system. Actin and myosin are two proteins that are essential for muscular contraction and are found in both skeletal and smooth muscles. However, actin is present in greater quantities in smooth muscles.
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. Predict which of the following compounds are ionic and which are covalent, based on the location of their constituent atoms in the periodic table:
(a) Cl2CO (b) MnO (c) NCl3 (d) CoBr2 (e) K2S
Based on the location of the constituent atoms of the given compounds in the periodic table:
(a) Cl₂CO is a covalent compound
(b) MnO is an ionic compound
(c) NCl₃ is a covalent compound
(d) CoBr₂ is an ionic compound
(e) K₂S is an ionic compound
What are ionic and covalent compounds?Ionic compounds are compounds that are formed from the electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. The ions are formed as a result of one element in the compound giving out electrons while the other accepts the electrons.
Ionic compounds formed between metals and non-metals.
Covalent compounds are formed when atoms of very close or similar electronegativities share electrons between their atoms. Covalent compounds are formed between non-metals or metalloids.
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differential water permeability is a crucial to nephron feature. the loop of henle limbs' permeability to water is ____
Differential water permeability is a crucial to nephron feature. the loop of Henle limbs' permeability to water is Descending limb .
Water can pass through the loop of Henle's descending limb. The hyperosmolar medullary interstitium is filled with water. In antidiuresis, osmolarity can reach 1200 mOsm/L at the apex of the medullary interstitium. The ascending limb (where loop diuretics function) is watertight.
The thin descending limb of the loop is permeable to water, and the liquid reaching the bend of the loop is substantially richer in salt and urea than blood plasma.
The thin descending limb is impervious to ions and urea but extremely permeable to water.
A steep curve in the renal medulla transitions the loop from descending to ascending thin limb. Water cannot pass through the narrow ascending limb.
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In the beetles described in the animation, there were two alleles for color, brown and green. Suppose that you discover a very small population of these beetles, consisting of the individuals shown below. How can you calculate the frequency of each allele in this population?
Drag the terms or numbers on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences. Not all terms will be used.
Terms or numbers:
0.4 ; 0.6 ; 8 ; 20 ; Brown alleles
Sentences:
1. To calculate the frequency of the brown allele, count the number of ________________ and divide by the total number of alleles in this population.
2. In this beetle population, the number of brown alleles is ___.
3. In this beetle population, the total number of alleles is ___.
4. The frequency of the brown allele in this beetle population is _____.
5. The frequency of the green allele in this beetle population is _____.
To calculate the frequency of the brown allele, count number of brown alleles and divide by total number of alleles in this population.
In this beetle population, the number of the brown alleles is 8.
In this beetle population, the total number of the alleles is 20.
Frequency of brown allele in this beetle population is 0.4.
Frequency of green allele in this beetle population is 0.6.
Allele frequency refers to how not unusual an allele is in a populace. It is decided by counting how typically the allele seems inside the population and then dividing by the full variety of copies of the gene.
Gene frequency can be defined as the fraction or percentage of a population that contains an allele at a selected locus (Gillespie 2004).
Relative genotype frequency and relative allele frequency are the most essential measures of genetic variation. Relative genotype frequency is the proportion of individuals in a populace that has a specific genotype.
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When an organism’s ecosystem experience a disruption of some kind ,the organism may respond in one of three ways, which are?
A natural disaster, the neighborhood experiences ecological succession and reverts to its pre-event condition. Ecosystems will recover since there have been natural disasters on earth for a very long period.
How can an ecology that has been damaged be repaired?Helping the recovery process can be as easy as getting rid of an invasive species, reintroducing a lost species, or restoring a lost function (like fire); or it can be as complex as changing the hydrology, planting vegetation, or changing the landforms.
What is a disruption, exactly?The invention of personal computers and, later, cellphones are two examples of new-market disruption mentioned in Disruptive Strategy. Together, they show how disruptors develop into incumbents who can be overthrown by fresh innovation.
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Question 3 of 10
Which of these factors makes nuclear energy unsustainable?
A. Nuclear power plants last the longest.
B. Nuclear energy generates too much toxic waste.
C. Nuclear energy requires wind turbines.
D. Nuclear power plants cost the most to build.
Which statement is true regarding heterotrophs? A. They do not need glucose. B. They can make their own food through photosynthesis. C. Their cells contain chloroplasts. D. Their cells contain motochondria.
Answer:
C. Their cells contain chloroplasts
Explanation:
experiment for the undergraduate organic laboratory: an enantioselective aldol reaction catalyzed by methyl prolinamide
In this regard, an intriguing example is the catalytic asymmetric aldol reaction, which is a key C–C bond-forming event in both chemistry and biology.
Is L proline a catalyst that is enantioselective?The enantioselectivity that was seen in the examined reactions was due to the L-proline acting as a catalyst, according to the X-ray structures, e.e., and optical activity of the produced compounds.
Enantioselective reactions: what are they?According to the IUPAC, it is "a chemical reaction (or reaction sequence) in which one or more additional chiral elements are produced in a substrate molecule and which creates the stereoisomeric (enantiomeric or diastereomeric) products in uneven proportions."
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Question:
experiment for the undergraduate organic laboratory: an enantioselective aldol reaction catalyzed by methyl prolinamide. Give reason why ?
Which molecule is most responsible for determining an organism's eye color, body structure, and cellular
enzyme production?
Answer:
DNA creates the cellular energy used by cells inside all forms of life. DNA is coiled and folded into the nucleus of each cell inside eukaryotes. DNA is changed from a nucleic acid into all other forms biomolecules to make cells.
Explanation:
if the antimicrobial agent causes the cell to lose its ability to regulate what enters and exit, then the agent has _____ .
If the antimicrobial agent causes the cell to lose its ability to regulate what enters and exits then the agent has disrupted cell membrane function.
Antimicrobial agents are either bactericidal agents that kill the target bacteria or fungi or bacteriostatic agents that inhibit their growth. Bactericides are more effective, but bacteriostats are very useful because they allow the host's normal defenses to destroy the microorganism.
Antimicrobial agents can be classified into groups based on the mechanism of antimicrobial activity. The main groups are drugs that inhibit cell wall synthesis depolarize cell membranes inhibit protein synthesis inhibit the nucleic acid synthesis and inhibit bacterial metabolic pathways.
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Slides: Are there striations across the width of the muscle cells? Number of Nuclei? What are the size, shape, and arrangement of fibers? What function occurs as a result of the contractions in the selected muscle? (see page 3 of the lesson) What is the relationship between structure and function in the selected muscle? (see page 3 of the lesson)
Muscle - Human Cardiac
Intestines - Outer Wall Detail (smooth muscle)
Slide 1: Muscle- Skeletal Longitudinal Section
and
Slide 2: Muscle-Skeletal Cross Section
Answer:In slides 1 and 2, the muscle cells are skeletal muscle cells, which are known for their characteristic striations. These striations are visible when looking at the cells in both a longitudinal and cross-sectional view, indicating that the striations run across the width of the muscle cells.
Number of Nuclei:
Skeletal muscle cells typically have multiple nuclei, which are visible in both slides 1 and 2. The number of nuclei in a skeletal muscle cell can vary, but it is typically between 1 and 20.
What are the size, shape, and arrangement of fibers?
In slides 1 and 2, the fibers of the skeletal muscle are elongated and cylindrical in shape. They are arranged in parallel bundles, with the fibers running parallel to each other. The size of the fibers can vary, but they are typically between 10 and 100 micrometers in diameter.
What function occurs as a result of the contractions in the selected muscle?
The function of skeletal muscle is to produce movement. When the skeletal muscle fibers contract, they shorten and pull on the bones they are attached to, causing movement at the joints. This is the function that occurs as a result of the contractions in the selected muscle.
What is the relationship between structure and function in the selected muscle?
The structure of skeletal muscle, specifically the size, shape, and arrangement of the fibers, is directly related to its function. The elongated, parallel arrangement of the fibers allows for efficient and coordinated contractions, which are essential for producing movement. Additionally, the size of the fibers is related to the strength and power of the muscle, with larger fibers being able to produce more force than smaller fibers. Overall, the relationship between structure and function in the selected muscle is one of interdependence, with the structure of the muscle enabling it to perform its specific functions.
Explanation:
A newborn is protected against certain digestive and respiratory infections thanks to IgA from the mother's. Select one: a. milk. b. blood. c. intestine.
IgA from the mother's milk helps to protect a baby against several digestive and respiratory illnesses.
In the type of secretory IgA, breast milk serves as a child's initial source of specific antibodies immune defense in the digestive system (SIgA). IgA is crucial because it covers & seals your baby's digestive and respiratory systems to keep infections out of their bodies and bloodstreams. Your kid can be protected by the IgA antibodies from a number of diseases, including those brought on by bacteria, viruses, fungus, and parasites. IgA is released into mother and child's blood, GI tract, & mucosal membranes. The majority of antibodies are too big to pass via breastmilk in significant quantities. IgA, however, passes through the lactocyte barrier and into the milk.
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Question 2
Ceramics are strong but brittle, and are good conductors.
True false question.
True
False
False. Ceramics are strong but brittle, but they are not good conductors
What about good conductors?Aluminum, gold, bobby , brass, and sword are all effective operators of electricity.In the form of cables, we employ them in electrical circuits and systems.In general, all essence are effective electrical operators.Gold and bobby are two examples.Tableware in particular makes essence excellent electrical operators.Since bobby is less precious than tableware, electrical lines covering millions of kilometers are produced using it every time.Glass and plastic are exemplifications of insulators since they're poor electrical operators.The variations essential in the get of sexual reduplication can serve as a process for picky adaption, allowing certain people to be more set for survival.All living effects have the capability to reproduce themselves.still, populations would drop and eventually vanish as people failed from old age, complaint, If brutes are unfit to negotiate this.Because at least one electron in each snippet is free — that is, not bound to a specific snippet and free to bat about the essence without restriction — essence are good operators of heat and electricity.Learn more about good conductors here:
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Which of the following is NOT. A result of the Krebs cycle?
A.) The yield of 3 NADHs and 1 FADH2s per pyruvate
B.) The exhalation of remaining CO2 from the breaking down of citric acid
C.) The yield of 19 ATP Molecules per pyruvate, or 38 per glucose.
D.) The production of the building blocks for the electron transport chain
Answer:
the answer is D thats what it says
Label A
DONE
Label B
DONE
Label C
DONE
Label D
DONE
Answer:
A: nucleus
(cant see the rest of the image so, the green circle at the top right of the image is a peroxisome, the line closest to A is either a nuclear envelope or nuclear pore, im not sure about the last one but my best guess is, centriole
Explanation: meh, i like bio
Arrange the levels of the taxonomic hierarchy from the group containing the most species to the group containing the fewest. a) Family b) Class c) Order
A) Family b) Class c) Order a) Domain e) Kingdom d) Phylum b) Class c) Order a) Genus
Seven levels make up Linnaeus' hierarchical categorization scheme. They are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, & species, in order of largest to smallest. 2. Each level is referred to in taxonomic nomenclature as a taxon (plural: taxa) as well as taxonomic group. Kingdom, phylum as well as division, class, order, family, genus, & species are the seven major taxonomic ranks. Additionally, although not being listed in any nomenclature regulations, domain (proposed by Carl Woese) now is frequently used as a fundamental rank and is a synonym of dominion (lat. Eight levels of taxa make up the Linnean system, which is still widely used today. From most broad to most particular, these levels include domain, kingdom, phylum (plural, phyla), class, order, family, and genus (plural, genera),
(Arrange the levels of the taxonomic hierarchy from the group containing the most species to the group containing the fewest.
a) Family
b) Class
c) Order
d) Phylum
e) Kingdom
f) Genus)
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origin of vertical orientation in two-dimensional metal halide perovskites and its effect on photovoltaic performance
Answer:
Z- Covalent Bond
Explanation:
Convalent bond
explain a nervous impulse
The term "action potential" also refers to the nerve impulse. It speaks of the electrical signal that an activated neuron sends out. Afterward, synapses, or connections between the cells, send this signal.
What is a nervous impulse?The term "action potential" also refers to the nerve impulse. It speaks of the electrical signal that an activated neuron sends out. Afterward, synapses, or connections between the cells, send this signal.
A neuron is in a resting state when it is not actively delivering a nerve impulse, ready to do so at any time. The sodium-potassium pump keeps a differential in charge across the neuron's cell membrane while it is at rest.
The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport system that transports potassium ions (K+) into cells and sodium ions (Na+) out of cells. Using energy from ATP and carrier proteins in the cell membrane, the sodium-potassium pump transports both ions from regions of lower to greater concentration.
The resting potential is an electrical gradient that results from these concentration changes across the cell membrane. Nerve impulse transmission requires precise control of membrane resting potential.
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two of the steps in the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate (steps 4 and 5 in the figure) do not involve any of the three carbons of pyruvate, yet are essential to the operation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase (pdh) complex. Why are steps 4 and 5 essential to the operation of the PDH complex?• They transfer a thiol group from coenzyme A to acetyl lipoyllysine.• They reduce the disulfide bond in oxidized lipoyllysine.• They reoxidize the reduced lipoamide cofactor.• They catalyze the synthesis of hydroxyethyl thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP).
The two steps catalyzed by dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) are required to regenerate the oxidized form of lipoate, bound to dihydrolipoyl transacetylase, from the dihydrolipoyl (reduced) form produced in the oxidation of pyruvate. First, FAD is reduced to FADH2 to reoxidize the dihydrolipoate, then NAD+ is reduced to NADH to reoxidize the FADH2 to complete the reaction.
What three steps are included in the breakdown of pyruvate ?Pyruvate, which is created during glycolysis, enters the mitochondria to start aerobic respiration. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA to start aerobic respiration. Decarboxylation, NAD+ reduction, and coenzyme A attachment are the three steps that make up this conversion.
To create acetyl CoA, pyruvate is subjected to oxidative decarboxylation. A byproduct of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. In the presence of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, pyruvate is oxidized.
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Organisms are classified by shared characteristics. They are
based on their cell
first classified into three
structure and where they can live. The three domains are
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
The domain:
can be broken down further into
four kingdoms. The kingdom Fungi are typically multicellular
and are decomposers, such as mushrooms. The kingdom
are unicellular eukaryotes, such as algae.
The kingdom Plantae are multicellular autotrophs, such as
flowers. The kingdom Animalia are all multicellular
such as humans.
Answer:Learning Objectives
Define phylogeny.
Name the 3 Domains of the 3 Domain system of classification and recognize a description of each.
Name the four kingdoms of the Domain Eukarya and recognize a description of each.
Define horizontal gene transfer.
The Earth is 4.6 billion years old and microbial life is thought to have first appeared between 3.8 and 3.9 billion years ago; in fact, 80% of Earth's history was exclusively microbial life. Microbial life is still the dominant life form on Earth. It has been estimated that the total number of microbial cells on Earth on the order of 2.5 X 1030 cells, making it the major fraction of biomass on the planet.
Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary relationships between organisms. The Three Domain System, proposed by Woese and others, is an evolutionary model of phylogeny based on differences in the sequences of nucleotides in the cell's ribosomal RNAs (rRNA), as well as the cell's membrane lipid structure and its sensitivity to antibiotics. Comparing rRNA structure is especially useful. Because rRNA molecules throughout nature carry out the same function, their structure changes very little over time. Therefore similarities and dissimilarities in rRNA nucleotide sequences are a good indication of how related or unrelated different cells and organisms are.
There are various hypotheses as to the origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Because all cells are similar in nature, it is generally thought that all cells came from a common ancestor cell termed the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). These LUCAs eventually evolved into three different cell types, each representing a domain. The three domains are the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya.
Explanation: copy right